Electrolytes

In this section, we will consider the roles of key electrolytes. Sodium, potassium and calcium levels are all tightly regulated as excessive or low levels of these electrolytes can be fatal.

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Diagram of an intercalated cell showing the lumen on the left and ECF on the right, with arrows depicting H⁺ and K⁺ movement and ATP involvement.

External Balance of Potassium

Diagram of intracellular and extracellular fluid showing the Na-K ATPase and exchange of potassium and hydrogen ions across a cell membrane.

Internal Balance of Potassium

Calcium Regulation

Sodium Regulation

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Diagram of a nephron showing the glomerulus, proximal convoluted tubule, descending and ascending loops of Henle, distal tubule, and collecting duct, with explanatory text about filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.
Regulation

Water Filtration and Reabsorption

by Omar Haque

Diagram showing upper motor neuron pathways from the precentral gyrus through the midbrain and medulla, crossing at the pyramidal decussation and continuing in the spinal cord to a lower motor neuron and skeletal muscle.
Motor System

Upper Motor Neurones

by Peter Dudley